conspiracy of one

The suggestion of a conspiracy to promote the theory of global warming was put forward in a 1990 documentary The Greenhouse Conspiracy broadcast by Channel Four in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990, as part of the Equinox series, which asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding. The general public is cast as the victim of organised persecution, and the motives of the alleged conspirators often verge on pure maniacal evil. [in Part IV. [127][128] His calculations used data from the PRISM surveillance program, the Tuskegee syphilis experiment, and the FBI forensic scandal. Such theories tend to get more traction among election losers in society, for example, and the emphasis of conspiracy theories by elites and leaders tends to increase belief among followers who have higher levels of conspiracy thinking.[119]. The political scientist Michael Barkun, discussing the usage of "conspiracy theory" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end. [71], One of the most widely confirmed facts about conspiracy theories is that belief in a single conspiracy theory tends to promote belief in other unrelated conspiracy theories as well. Belief in conspiracy theories is correlated with anxiety disorders, paranoia, and authoritarian beliefs. An agreement between two or more people to commit an illegal act, along with an intent to achieve the agreement's goal. A fundamental paradox of the paranoid style is the imitation of the enemy. [103] While various aspects of personality affect susceptibility to conspiracy theories, none of the Big Five personality traits are associated with conspiracy beliefs.[103]. Among the longest-standing and most widely recognized conspiracy theories are notions concerning the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the 1969 Apollo moon landings, and the 9/11 terrorist attacks, as well as numerous theories pertaining to alleged plots for world domination by various groups both real and imaginary. ("Who benefits? However, it does not appear that the beliefs help to address these motives; in fact, they may be self-defeating, acting to make the situation worse instead. "[121], French sociologist Bruno Latour suggests that the widespread popularity of conspiracy theories in mass culture may be due, in part, to the pervasive presence of Marxist-inspired critical theory and similar ideas in academia since the 1970s. The series aired for four seasons (50 episodes) across Canada on Vision TV from 2011-2016. [116], Professor Quassim Cassam argues that conspiracy theorists hold their beliefs due to flaws in their thinking and more precisely, their intellectual character. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as the role of chance and unintended consequences. Where no one has actually committed a criminal act, the punishment varies. [46] In contrast, conspiracy theories suggest that conspiracies are unrealistically successful and that groups of conspirators, such as bureaucracies, can act with near-perfect competence and secrecy. Belief in the power of a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity—an unconscious affirmation that man is responsible for his own destiny. On one occasion, she pinned a, 18-year-old parole officer named Chris up against the wall. [51] This puts "the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp. Conspiratorial claims can act as a successful rhetorical strategy to convince a portion of the public via appeal to emotion. As described by Bruce Cumings, history is instead "moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities". Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies. [16][17][18] They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh and Anders Breivik, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union,[16] and Turkey. For example, since conspiracy theories can reinterpret disconfirming information as part of their narrative, refuting a claim can result in accidentally reinforcing it. 78, 76. Chris was a brilliant young employee who went on to work for the Federal police. In conspiracy theories, the conspirators are usually claimed to be acting with extreme malice. In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy. Thus, where one or more members of the conspiracy committed illegal acts to further the conspiracy's goals, all members of the conspiracy may be held accountable for those acts. One day, Catherine Hand took me aside for a little chat. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. [46], A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others. "Belief in conspiracy theories. The enemy, for example, may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship, even of pedantry. However, belief in conspiracy theories is primarily driven by emotion. [33], Joseph Pierre has also noted that mistrust in authoritative institutions is the core component underlying many conspiracy theories and that this mistrust creates an epistemic vacuum and makes individuals searching for answers vulnerable to misinformation. West also compares those theories to hypernationalism and religious fundamentalism. [104][105] According to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold: This third point is supported by research of Roland Imhoff, professor in Social Psychology at the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz. [42] However, deHaven-Smith's suggestion has been criticized by Michael Butter, a Professor of American Literary and Cultural History at the University of Tübingen, on the grounds that a CIA document which deHaven-Smith referenced, Concerning Criticism of the Warren Report – which was publicly released in 1976 after a Freedom of Information Act request – does not contain the phrase "conspiracy theory" in the singular, and only mentions "conspiracy theories" once, in the sentence "Conspiracy theories have frequently thrown suspicion on our organisation [sic], for example, by falsely alleging that Lee Harvey Oswald worked for us. [83], Harry G. West and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority, certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the U.S. maintains a belief in conspiracy theories. If a cabal can be implicated, there may be a hope of breaking its power or of joining it. This suggests that an effective approach may be to provide criticism while avoiding such challenges. A conspiracy theory can be local or international, focused on single events or covering multiple incidents and entire countries, regions and periods of history. [120] Likewise, Roger Cohen writing for The New York Times has said that, "captive minds; ... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. And now it's reached at least one Fox News host. [130], Historically, when real conspiracies have occurred they have usually had little effect on history and have had unforeseen consequences for the conspirators. "[51] Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore. [90], The primary defense against conspiracy theories is to maintain an open society, in which many sources of reliable information are available, and government sources are known to be credible rather than propaganda. Some conspiracy statutes assign the same punishment for conspiracy as for the target offense. Although I like to think of myself as a middle of the road kind of individual, it is important to keep in mind that the truth does not always lie in the middle of a debate, whether we are talking about climate change, vaccines, or antipsychotic medications. Some historians have argued that there is an element of psychological projection in conspiracism. [33][34][35] A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories. Finally, try not to lose hope. [76][108][109][110][111][81], According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm". Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image. [17][20][25][26] Other effects of conspiracy theories include reduced trust in scientific evidence,[17][27] radicalization and ideological reinforcement of extremist groups,[16][28] and negative consequences for the economy. [33] Analytical thinking aids in reducing belief in conspiracy theories, in part because it emphasizes rational and critical cognition. [9][10] The epistemic strategy of conspiracy theories has been called "cascade logic": each time new evidence becomes available, a conspiracy theory is able to dismiss it by claiming that even more people must be part of the cover-up. [44], Real conspiracies, even very simple ones, are difficult to conceal and routinely experience unexpected problems. Meet the Propagandists and Conspiracy Theorists Behind the One America News Network The president has taken a shine to the far-right channel’s fictional pro-Trump reports. [33] In China, one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the rise of Hitler, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and climate change were planned by the Rothschild family, which may have led to effects on discussions about China's currency policy. According to Rothbard, a "shallow" theorist observes an event and asks Cui bono? On the other hand, the "deep" conspiracy theorist begins with a hunch and then seeks out evidence. He also noted that conspirators very rarely achieved their goal. This is expected to lead to increased alienation and anomie, and reduced social capital. Where no one has actually committed a criminal act, the punishment varies. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication, discipline, and strategic ingenuity the Communist cause calls forth. "[92], It has been suggested that directly countering misinformation can be counterproductive. ), Goertzel, Ted. [17], It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. The physicist David Robert Grimes estimated the time it would take for a conspiracy to be exposed based on the number of people involved. [75]:199, Justin Fox of Time magazine argues that Wall Street traders are among the most conspiracy-minded group of people, and ascribes this to the reality of some financial market conspiracies, and to the ability of conspiracy theories to provide necessary orientation in the market's day-to-day movements. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style (s) of mass opinion. But it does get one thing right: The First World War was the result of a conspiracy. [33][34][35] Interventions to reduce the occurrence of conspiracy beliefs include maintaining an open society and improving the analytical thinking skills of the general public.[33][34]. To understand this conspiracy we must turn not to Sarajevo and the conclave of Serbian nationalists plotting their assassination in the summer of 1914, but to a chilly drawing room in London in the winter of 1891. The "Enemy Within" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens. believing that Osama bin Laden was already dead before his compound in Pakistan was attacked makes the same person more likely to believe that he is still alive. One in five English people believe COVID is a Jewish conspiracy - survey Preliminary data shows many Britons believe Jews created the coronavirus. The Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. Studies[66] also show that an increased attachment to these irrational beliefs lead to a decrease in desire for civic engagement. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures.". The "Enemy Below" features the lower classes working to overturn the social order. [89] Any legitimization effect might also be reduced by responding to more conspiracy theories rather than fewer. Historian Kathryn S. Olmsted cites three reasons why Americans are prone to believing in government conspiracies theories: Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice, witch hunts, wars, and genocides. [38] The word "conspiracy" derives from the Latin con- ("with, together") and spirare ("to breathe"). In a context where a conspiracy theory has become embedded within a social group, communal reinforcement may also play a part. Furthermore, they also make people less likely to take actions that could improve their circumstances. [39] According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century the term conspiracy theory simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized. [61], Belief in conspiracy theories is generally based not on evidence, but in the faith of the believer. According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":[75]:4, Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. [106], Humanistic psychologists argue that even if a posited cabal behind an alleged conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile, there often remains an element of reassurance for theorists. For example, you may conspire to commit murder, or conspire to commit fraud. One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office[54] claimed that he was born in Kenya instead of Hawaii[55]- where he was born. Specifically, it was claimed that part of the procedure reflected a conspiracy to silence dissenters, which served as motivation for opponents of the report and successfully redirected a significant amount of the public discussion away from the science. [96] The propensity to believe in conspiracy theories is strongly associated with the mental health disorder of schizotypy. "[122], Latour notes that such social criticism has been appropriated by those he describes as conspiracy theorists, including climate-change denialists and the 9/11 Truth movement: "Maybe I am taking conspiracy theories too seriously, but I am worried to detect, in those mad mixtures of knee-jerk disbelief, punctilious demands for proofs, and free use of powerful explanation from the social neverland, many of the weapons of social critique.  In addition, conspiracies allow for derivative liability where conspirators can also be punished for the illegal acts carried out by other members, even if they were not directly involved. At the very least, the conspirators are said to have an almost inhuman disregard for the basic liberty and well-being of the general population. [20][73][74], The term "conspiracism" was further popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology. Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused. [33] In rural Africa, common targets of conspiracy theorizing include societal elites, enemy tribes, and the Western world, with conspirators often alleged to enact their plans via sorcery or witchcraft; one common belief identifies modern technology as itself being a form of sorcery, created with the goal of harming or controlling the people. ", Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. [17] Other conspiracist arguments may not be scientific; for example, in response to the IPCC Second Assessment Report in 1996, much of the opposition centered on promoting a procedural objection to the report's creation. [17], The typical approach of conspiracy theories is to challenge any action or statement from authorities, using even the most tenuous justifications. [7], Conspiracy theories resist falsification and are reinforced by circular reasoning: both evidence against the conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth,[6][8] whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved. [24] Conspiracy theories are a significant obstacle to improvements in public health,[17][25] encouraging opposition to vaccination and water fluoridation among others, and have been linked to outbreaks of vaccine-preventable diseases. https://goo.gl/iSgHevSubscribe for More Awesome Theories! [16] More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints. Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight. The "Benevolent Conspiracies" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people. [27] For example, they promote a negative and distrustful view of other people and groups, who are allegedly acting based on antisocial and cynical motivations. Rather, conspiracy theories postulate a black-and-white world in which good is struggling against evil. ", Jewett, Robert; John Shelton Lawrence (2004), van Prooijen, Jan-Willem, and Van Vugt, Mark (2018) "Conspiracy theories: Evolved functions and psychological mechanisms", CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (, 2021 storming of the United States Capitol, conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, collaboration with mobsters in attempting to assassinate Fidel Castro, Saddam Hussein played a role in the 9/11 attacks, conspiracy theories about pharmaceutical companies, the forces of light, and the forces of darkness, 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries, List of topics characterized as pseudoscience, "Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale", "Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy", "Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy", "An introduction into the world of conspiracy", "The concomitants of conspiracy concerns", "Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation", "Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire", "Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows", "Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists", "Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review)", "Prevention of mother-to-child transmission in South Africa: an ever-changing landscape", "Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain", "The Report of a Quarterly Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association, held in London at the Royal Medico-Chirurgical Society, by permission of the President and Council, on the 27th January, 1870. If you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world. [122], Latour notes that about 90% of contemporary social criticism in academia displays one of two approaches, which he terms "the fact position and the fairy position". [17][46] Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy.  Thus, where one or more members of the conspiracy committed illegal acts to further the conspiracy's goals, all members of the conspiracy may be held accountable for those acts. [29][30][31][32] Exposure to conspiracy theories in news media and popular entertainment increases receptiveness to conspiratorial ideas, and has also increased the social acceptability of fringe beliefs. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the "real but hidden" power relations in social groups. ", This page was last edited on 1 April 2021, at 18:00. [68], Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal, are usually referred to as "investigative journalism" or "historical analysis" rather than conspiracy theory. [34][89] However, real conspiracies are normally revealed by people working within the system, such as whistleblowers and journalists, and most of the effort spent by conspiracy theorists is inherently misdirected. [64][65] Belief in conspiracy theories is associated with biases in reasoning, such as the conjunction fallacy. [17], In science, conspiracists may suggest that a scientific theory can be disproven by a single perceived deficiency, even though such events are extremely rare. [77] Variants include conspiracies involving colonialism, Zionism, superpowers, oil, and the war on terrorism, which may be referred to as a war against Islam. Therefore, one possible solution is offering consumers a seat at the table to mend their mistrust in institutions. The illegal act is the conspiracy's "target offense. [ 13 ] psychologists attribute finding a conspiracy research suggests that the smaller the minority believing a... 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